1850s, "Gold Mountain"
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Around 1850s, Chinese migrants began their journey toward United States, there are two main reasons for their immigration:
First, they came to United States for financial propose. Initially, most of them were heading to "Golden Mountain" or "Gum Saan" when California's Gold Rush began in 1848. They came to work in the mine and send money to families back home. Most of the early Chinese immigrants were uneducated, but they "dreamed of new possibilities inspired by stories of the 'gold hills'. (1)"
Second, the most important reason for Chinese immigration was economic hardship due to the growing British dominance over China after Britain defeated China in the Opium War of 1839-1842. “The Qing government imposed high taxes on peasant farmers; unable to pay these taxes, many of them lost their lands."(1)
First, they came to United States for financial propose. Initially, most of them were heading to "Golden Mountain" or "Gum Saan" when California's Gold Rush began in 1848. They came to work in the mine and send money to families back home. Most of the early Chinese immigrants were uneducated, but they "dreamed of new possibilities inspired by stories of the 'gold hills'. (1)"
Second, the most important reason for Chinese immigration was economic hardship due to the growing British dominance over China after Britain defeated China in the Opium War of 1839-1842. “The Qing government imposed high taxes on peasant farmers; unable to pay these taxes, many of them lost their lands."(1)
1860s, Transcontinental Railroad
Due to the foreign miners' tax and the mining profits declined, many Chinese immigrants chose to work on railroad.
With extremely low wages and rough and dangerous working environments, Chinese railroad workers mostly responsible for laying the tracks in the western railways, which represents the milestone accomplishment in engineering during 19th century. And in 1868, the transcontinental railroad was completed.
"No danger of strikes among them. We are training them to do all kinds of labors: blasting, driving horses, handling rock as well as pick and shovel(1)," stated by railroad company superintendent Charles Crocker. During this period, Crocker hired twelve thousand Chinese worker, representing 90 percent of the total number of employees.
After the construction of railroad, Chinese men started their own business such as selling food or doing menial services.
With extremely low wages and rough and dangerous working environments, Chinese railroad workers mostly responsible for laying the tracks in the western railways, which represents the milestone accomplishment in engineering during 19th century. And in 1868, the transcontinental railroad was completed.
"No danger of strikes among them. We are training them to do all kinds of labors: blasting, driving horses, handling rock as well as pick and shovel(1)," stated by railroad company superintendent Charles Crocker. During this period, Crocker hired twelve thousand Chinese worker, representing 90 percent of the total number of employees.
After the construction of railroad, Chinese men started their own business such as selling food or doing menial services.
1870s, Anti-Chinese violence
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After the construction of the railroad and the gold rush, Chinese immigrants became the targets of the new wave of violence and discrimination in some major Cities.
Chinese workers were paid lower wages compare to white workers, then white workers started to blame Chinese workers took away their job opportunity and lowered their average wages.
For example, in October 31, 1880, a anti-Chinese riots took place in Denver's Chinatown. During the hours of the violence riot, mob destroyed many Chinese-own business properties and residences, and killed on Chinese. This riot
was one of the major anti-Chinese riots during that time.
" 'Ethnic antagonism' in the mines, factories, and fields forced thousands of Chinese into self-employment ---- stores, restaurants, and especially laundries." (1)
Chinese workers were paid lower wages compare to white workers, then white workers started to blame Chinese workers took away their job opportunity and lowered their average wages.
For example, in October 31, 1880, a anti-Chinese riots took place in Denver's Chinatown. During the hours of the violence riot, mob destroyed many Chinese-own business properties and residences, and killed on Chinese. This riot
was one of the major anti-Chinese riots during that time.
" 'Ethnic antagonism' in the mines, factories, and fields forced thousands of Chinese into self-employment ---- stores, restaurants, and especially laundries." (1)
1882, The Chinese Exclusion Act
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The U.S. Congress passed The Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, due to the anti-Chinese ideology and fear of overpopulation of Chinese immigrants ( There are 322000 Chinese came to America during 1850s to 1880s). And this act is a turning point of American government, because it was initially accepted and welcomed immigrants and now it was closing the gates for Chinese immigrants. The one who offend this act would face imprisonment and deportation. Moreover, the American citizenships of all Chinese immigrants were denied.
Chinese exclusion act caused the stagnation of Chinese community during 1880s, and it also prevented Chinese immigrants to assimilate into American mainstream society. Therefore, during this era most of the Chinese immigrants formed their own economic groups. This also is the reason the stereotype of describing Chinese immigrants as introverted and refuse to assimilate to American mainstream society.
Chinese Exclusion Act representing a critical moments of history of America, because it was the first significant restrictive immigration law and it was also the first law to restrict immigrants based on their race and class. Therefore it contributed to United States race-based immigration policy
Chinese exclusion act caused the stagnation of Chinese community during 1880s, and it also prevented Chinese immigrants to assimilate into American mainstream society. Therefore, during this era most of the Chinese immigrants formed their own economic groups. This also is the reason the stereotype of describing Chinese immigrants as introverted and refuse to assimilate to American mainstream society.
Chinese Exclusion Act representing a critical moments of history of America, because it was the first significant restrictive immigration law and it was also the first law to restrict immigrants based on their race and class. Therefore it contributed to United States race-based immigration policy
1892 Act to Prohibit the Coming of Chinese Persons into the United States
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Geary act prohibited the coming of Chinese Persons into the United States in May, 1892. It is a continued version of Chinese Exclusion Act and also caused the large deportation of Chinese immigrants in U.S.. The content of the Geary Act is familiar to Chinese Exclusion Act, It "forced the burden of proving legal residence upon the Chinese, and required that all Chinese laborers register under the act within one year of its passage."
This act allowed Chinese laborers to travel to China and reenter the United States, but its provisions were more restrictive than preceding immigration laws, requiring Chinese to register and secure certificates as proof of their right to be stay in the United States.
This act allowed Chinese laborers to travel to China and reenter the United States, but its provisions were more restrictive than preceding immigration laws, requiring Chinese to register and secure certificates as proof of their right to be stay in the United States.
1940s, World War II
During World War II, China and America shared same enemy: Japan; therefore the ally was formed by China and America.
Same situation was happening in American society. The mainstream of American society began to accept Chinese Americans and Chinese immigrants. In December 13th, 1943, president Franklin D. Roosevelt signed an Act to Repeal the Chinese Exclusion Acts, United States started to accept Chinese immigrants again, and this act also lifted restrictions on naturalization.
Moreover, around 13500 Chinese Americans join U.S. Army, representing nearly 22 percent of all Chinese men in America. Seventy percent of Chinese American soldiers were in the 3rd and 4th Infantry Divisions in Europe and the 6th, 32nd, and 77th Infantry Divisions in the Pacific, and twenty-five percent
served in the Air Force.
World War II seems to be a breaking point of the relationship of Chinese American and American mainstream society: China went from being known as the "sick man of Asia" to a vital ally in the United States' war against the Japanese, and Chinese went from the "heathen Chinee" to friends.
Here is a documentary about Chinese Americans during World War II:
Same situation was happening in American society. The mainstream of American society began to accept Chinese Americans and Chinese immigrants. In December 13th, 1943, president Franklin D. Roosevelt signed an Act to Repeal the Chinese Exclusion Acts, United States started to accept Chinese immigrants again, and this act also lifted restrictions on naturalization.
Moreover, around 13500 Chinese Americans join U.S. Army, representing nearly 22 percent of all Chinese men in America. Seventy percent of Chinese American soldiers were in the 3rd and 4th Infantry Divisions in Europe and the 6th, 32nd, and 77th Infantry Divisions in the Pacific, and twenty-five percent
served in the Air Force.
World War II seems to be a breaking point of the relationship of Chinese American and American mainstream society: China went from being known as the "sick man of Asia" to a vital ally in the United States' war against the Japanese, and Chinese went from the "heathen Chinee" to friends.
Here is a documentary about Chinese Americans during World War II:
The truth is, the racial hierarchy of American society was formed, even if the war made China and America became allies, but the structure of racial formation will not easily changed.